Amoralism
~ the doctrine that moral distinctions are invalid.

Animism
~ (1). The belief in the existence of individual spirits that inhabit natural objects and phenomena. (2). The belief in the existence of spiritual beings that are separable or separate from bodies. (3). The hypothesis holding that an immaterial force animates the universe.

Animalism
~ (1). The doctrine that human beings are purely animal in nature and lacking a spiritual nature. (2). Preoccupation with satisfaction of physical drives and appetites.

Argument
~ a connected series of statements or propositions, some of which are intended to provide support, justification or evidence for the truth of another statement or proposition. Arguments consist of one or more premises and a conclusion. The premises are those statements that are taken to provide the support or evidence; the conclusion is that which the premises allegedly support.

Asceticism
~ (1). The principles and practices of an ascetic; extreme self-denial and austerity. (2). The doctrine that the ascetic life releases the soul from bondage to the body and permits union with the divine.

Atheism
~ the doctrine or belief that there is no God.

Atomism
~ The ancient theory of Democritus, Epicurus, and Lucretius, according to which simple, minute, indivisible, and indestructible particles are the basic components of the entire universe.

Creationism
~ the literal belief in the account of Creation given in the Bible, Book of Genesis; "creationism denies the theory of evolution of species".

Credo
~ (1). The Apostles' Creed. (2). The Nicene Creed, especially as the third item of the Ordinary of the Roman Catholic Mass. (3). Any system of principles or beliefs.

Creed
~ (1). A formal statement of religious belief; a confession of faith. (2). A system of belief, principles, or opinions. (3). Any system of principles or beliefs.

Daoism
~ also called "Taoism". corresponds to both Daojia ("Dao family" or "school of the Dao"), an early Han dynasty (c. 100s BCE) term which describes so-called philosophical texts and thinkers such as Laozi, (Lao-tzu) and Zhuangzi, (Chuang-Tzu).

Demiurge
~ (Greek: dêmiourgos, "craftsman"), groundings; Platonic philosophy, and Gnosticism. Also known as Laldabaoth. Describes the architect of the world of matter, or lower God.

Democritus
[460 - 370 BC], Democritus was a student of Leucippus, and co-originator of the belief that all matter is made up of various imperishable, indivisible elements which he called "atomos", commonly known as the atom. He proposed that atoms themselves had the properties, size, shape, and mass, and that even the human soul was comprised of these atoms.

Descartes
Rene Descartes, [1596 - 1650]. French mathematician and philosopher. Known as the "founder of modern philosophy", (Western). Leading proponent of Rationalism and idealism.

Determinism
~ philosophy which proposes that all events are the inevitable result of existing conditions and consequences beyond any control. Thus, Freewill is an illusion. Determinism has it's foundation in theology and fatalism.

Diogenes of Sinope
[404 - 323 BCE], most famous of the Cynic philosophers, and student of Antisthenes. A proponent of Cynicism, Diogenes resided in Athens, and lived in a barrel. He was reputed for his integrity and cynical wit, for which he allegedly left even Alexander the Great speechless after his meeting with him.

Doctrine
~ (1). A principle or body of principles presented for acceptance or belief, as by a religious, political, scientific, or philosophic group; dogma. (2). A rule or principle of law, especially when established by precedent.

Dogma
~ (1). An authoritative principle, belief, or statement of ideas or opinion, especially one considered to be absolutely true. (2). A religious doctrine that is proclaimed as true without proof.

Dualism
~ philosophy that leads to an understanding of the world in terms of separation and duality. Dualism is applied to both theology and philosophy, as well as science, and thus has varied meanings in each of these. The primary philosophical foundation is the notion of separation of "Self" and "Object", and thus of "mind & body/matter". Theological interpretations include the separation and antithesis of "Good & Evil", and "Light & Darkness". Metaphysical examples include "Yin & Yang". Science makes constant divisions and use of dualities, for example, "Positive & Negative", "Matter & Anti-matter".

Duality
~ the foundation of dualism, and nature of "two-ness". Typical examples include; Light & dark, Up & down, Good & evil, Mind & body.

Dynamism
~ Any of the various theories or doctrines or philosophical systems that attempt to explain the phenomena of the universe in terms of some immanent force or energy.

Ego ~
1. An inflated feeling of pride in your superiority to others.
2. Your consciousness of your own identity.
3. The conscious mind, (psychoanalysis).

Egoism
~ the theory that one’s self is, or should be, the motivation and the goal of one’s own action. Altruism is the opposite of egoism.

Egotism
~ a psychological overvaluation of one’s own importance, or of one’s own activities.

Empirical
~ derived from experiment and observation rather than theory. Verifiable or provable by means of observation or experiment.

Empiricism
~ the doctrine that knowledge derives from experience. The view that experience, especially of the senses, is the only source of knowledge.

Epicureanism
~ A philosophy advanced by Epicurus that considered happiness, or the avoidance of pain and emotional disturbance, to be the highest good and that advocated the pursuit of pleasures that can be enjoyed in moderation. A doctrine of hedonism that was defended by several ancient Greek philosophers.

Epistemology
~ the study of knowledge.

Establishmentarianism
~ The doctrine of supporting the social or political establishment.

Establishmentism
~ The doctrine of supporting the social or political establishment.

Existentialism
~ philosophical movement or tendency, emphasizing individual existence, freedom, and choice, (freewill), that influenced many diverse writers in the 19th and 20th centuries. Major proponents; Soren Kierkegaard, (Dutch), Friedrich Nietzsche, (German), Jean Paul Satre, (French). Kierkegaard, is generally regarded as the founder of modern existentialism.

Freewill
~ the freedom to choose "yes" or "no", limited to current conditions and circumstance.

Gnosticism
~ (after gnôsis, the Greek word for "knowledge" or "insight") is the name given to a loosely organized religious and philosophical movement that flourished in the first and second centuries CE. Exact origins are unknown, although influences include; the Jewish Apocalyptic writings, Platonic philosophy, and also the Hebrew Scriptures themselves.

Gospel
~ The written body of teachings of a religious group that are generally accepted by that group. (2). The four books in the New Testament (Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John) that tell the story of Christ's life and teachings.

Hedonism
~ (1). The ethical doctrine holding that only what is pleasant or has pleasant consequences is intrinsically good. (2). The pursuit of, or devotion to pleasure, especially to the pleasures of the senses.

Heraclitus of Ephesus
[535 - 475 BCE], known as "The Obscure", Heraclitus was a pre-Socratic Ionian philosopher, a native of Ephesus on the coast of Asia Minor, (now Turkey). His writings influenced the thought of Socrates and Plato, as well as modern process philosophy. The idea of the logos is also credited to him, as he proclaims that everything originates out of the logos. Further, Heraclitus said "I am as I am not", and "He who hears not me but the logos will say: All is one." Heraclitus held that an explanation of change was foundational to any theory of nature. This view was strongly opposed by Parmenides, who said that reality was permanent and unchanging.

Idealism
~ (1). the philosophical theory that ideas are the only reality. (2). The act or practice of envisioning things in an ideal form.

Individualism
~ (1). Belief in the primary importance of the individual and in the virtues of self-reliance and personal independence. (2). A doctrine advocating freedom from government regulation in the pursuit of a person's economic goals.

Innatism
~ is a philosophical doctrine that holds that the mind is born with ideas/knowledge, and that therefore the mind is not a 'blank slate' at birth. It asserts therefore that not all knowledge is obtained from experience and the senses.

Intuition
~ The act or faculty of knowing or sensing without the use of rational processes; immediate cognition.

Intuitionism
~ (1). The theory that truth or certain truths are known by intuition rather than reason. (2). The theory that external objects of perception are immediately known to be real by intuition. (3). The theory that ethical principles are known to be valid through intuition. (4). The view that the subject matter of mathematics consists of the mental or symbolic constructions of mathematicians rather than independent and timeless abstractions, as is held in Platonism.

ism
~ a belief (or system of beliefs) accepted as authoritative by some group or school.

Judgment
~ (1). The act or process of judging; the formation of an opinion after consideration or deliberation. (2). The capacity to form an opinion by distinguishing and evaluating.

Justice
~ (1). The principle of moral rightness; equity. (2). judgment involved in the determination of rights and the assignment of rewards and punishments.

Logic
~ The study of the principles of reasoning, especially of the structure of propositions as distinguished from their content and of method and validity in deductive reasoning.

Logos
~ Greek origin. Term applied in philosophy, analytical psychology, rhetoric and religion. Heraclitus established the term in Western philosophy as meaning the fundamental order of the cosmos, as he proclaims that everything originates out of the logos. The sophists used the term to mean discourse, and Aristotle applied the term to argument from reason. After Judaism came under Hellenistic influence, Philo adopted the term into Jewish philosophy. The Gospel of John identifies Jesus as the incarnation of the Logos, through which all things are made. The gospel further identifies the Logos as God (theos), providing scriptural support for the trinity. It is this sense, the Logos as Jesus Christ and God, that is most common in popular culture.

Materialism
~ (1). The theory that physical matter is the only reality and that everything, including thought, feeling, mind, and will, can be explained in terms of matter and physical phenomena. (2). The theory or attitude that physical well-being and worldly possessions constitute the greatest good and highest value in life.

Metaphysics
~ From the combination of the Greek word meta, (meaning 'after'), and the word physics. "Metaphysics" is attributed to the work by Aristotle, that directly followed his work, "Physics". It is more commonly understood as the philosophies and the ideas pertaining to nature and existence, beyond the scope of physical experimentation and valid proof. Mysticism and theology thus have a foundation in metaphysics.

Monism
~ (1). The view in metaphysics that reality is a unified whole and that all existing things can be ascribed to or described by a single concept or system. (2). The doctrine that mind and matter are formed from, or reducible to, the same ultimate substance or principle of being.

Monotheism
~ The doctrine or belief that there is only one God.

Naturalism
~ the doctrine that the world can be understood in scientific terms without recourse to spiritual or supernatural explanations.

Neoplatonism
~ a modern term used to designate the period of Platonic philosophy beginning with the work of Plotinus and ending with the closing of the Platonic Academy by the Emperor Justinian in 529 CE. It is often described as 'mystical' or religious in nature, developed outside the mainstream of Academic Platonism. The origins of Neoplatonism can be traced back to the era of Hellenistic syncretism which spawned such movements and schools of thought as Gnosticism and the Hermetic tradition.

Neostoicism
~ is the name given to a late Renaissance philosophical movement that attempted to revive ancient Stoicism in a form that would be acceptable to a Christian audience. This involved the rejection or modification of certain parts of the Stoic system, especially physical doctrines such as materialism and determinism.

Nihilism
~ the belief that all values are baseless and that nothing can be known or communicated. It is often associated with extreme pessimism and a radical skepticism that condemns existence. "Nihilism" comes from the Latin nihil, or nothing, which means not anything, that which does not exist. (2). An extreme form of skepticism that denies all existence.

Ontology
~ The branch of metaphysics that deals with the nature of being.

Pantheism
~ (1). A doctrine identifying the Deity with the universe and its phenomena. (2). Belief in, and worship of all gods.

Perception
~ (1). Recognition and interpretation of sensory stimuli based chiefly on memory. (2). The neurological processes by which such recognition and interpretation are effected. (3). Becoming aware of something via the senses.

Phenomenology
~ (1). A philosophy or method of inquiry based on the premise that reality consists of objects and events as they are perceived or understood in human consciousness and not of anything independent of human consciousness. (2). A movement based on this, originated about 1905 by Edmund Husserl.

Philo
[20 BC - 50 AD], known also as Philo of Alexandria and as Philo Judaeus and as Yedidia, was a Hellenized Jewish philosopher born in Alexandria, Egypt. Philo used allegory to fuse and harmonize Greek philosophy and Judaism. Philo made his philosophy the means of defending and justifying Jewish religious truths. These truths he regarded as fixed and determinate; and philosophy was used as an aid to truth, and as a means of arriving at it. With this end in view Philo chose from the philosophical tenets of the Greeks, refusing those that did not harmonize with the Jewish religion. His account of the Creation is almost identical with that of Plato; he follows the latter's Timaeus closely in his exposition of the world as having no beginning and no end.

Philosophy
~ (1). Love and pursuit of wisdom by intellectual means and moral self-discipline. (2). Investigation of the nature, causes, or principles of reality, knowledge, or values, based on logical reasoning rather than empirical methods. (3). A system of thought based on or involving such inquiry: the philosophy of Hume. (4). The critical analysis of fundamental assumptions or beliefs.

Pluralism
~ (1).The doctrine that reality is composed of many ultimate substances. (2). The belief that no single explanatory system or view of reality can account for all the phenomena of life.

Polytheism
~ The worship of or belief in more than one god.

Pragmatism
~ a philosophical movement that includes those who claim that an ideology or proposition is true if it works satisfactorily, that the meaning of a proposition is to be found in the practical consequences of accepting it, and that unpractical ideas are to be rejected. Pragmatism originated in the United States during the latter quarter of the nineteenth century.

Protagoras
[490 - 420 BC], born in Abdera, Thrace, in Ancient Greece, and leading proponent of the Sophist school of thought. Sophists declared that the pursuit of knowledge and universal truth was misguided, and that man should strive to live according to his limits, Thus the words of Protagoras - "Man is the measure of all things". Leading opponent of Protagoras and the Sophists was Socrates himself.

Psyche ~
1. That which is responsible for one's thoughts and feelings; the seat of the faculty of reason.
2. The immaterial part of a person; the actuating cause of an individual life.

Rationalism
~ the doctrine that knowledge is acquired by reason without resort to experience. The theory that the exercise of reason, rather than experience, authority, or spiritual revelation, provides the primary basis for knowledge.

Realism
~ (1). The scholastic doctrine, opposed to nominalism, that universals exist independently of their being thought. (2). The modern philosophical doctrine, opposed to idealism, that physical objects exist independently of their being perceived. (3). An inclination toward literal truth and pragmatism.

Sensibility
~ (1). The ability to feel or perceive. (2). Keen intellectual perception. (3). Refined awareness and appreciation in matters of feeling.

Skepticism
~ (1). The ancient school of Pyrrho of Elis that stressed the uncertainty of our beliefs in order to oppose dogmatism. (2). The doctrine that absolute knowledge is impossible, either in a particular domain or in general. (3). A methodology based on an assumption of doubt with the aim of acquiring approximate or relative certainty. (4). A doubting or questioning attitude or state of mind; dubiety. (5). Doubt or disbelief of religious tenets.

Sophia
~ Greek word meaning wisdom.

Sophism
~ Sophists declared that the pursuit of knowledge and universal truth was misguided, and that man should strive to live according to his limits, and concentrate on the advancement of himself rather than pursue that of which he did not know, and could not possibly comprehend. Protagoras and Gorgias were the leading proponents in ancient greece, at the time of Socrates. The Sophists were often criticised by the latter, for their denouncement of knowledge, and for their business like ventures concerning their tutoring.

Sophist
~ (1). Any of a group of Greek philosophers and teachers in the 5th century BC who speculated on a wide range of subjects. (2). One skilled in elaborate and devious argumentation.

Stoicism
~ philosophy through reason that it is possible to view the world as rational. In regulating one's life, the individual learns to accept what happens with a tranquil mind. In everything, duty to society is performed. Stoicism also has foundation in determinism and confucianism.

Subjectivism
~ thesis which holds that notions of "good or bad" or "right or wrong" varies from individual to individual, subjective to their understanding and wisdom. Plato professed that ignorance is the source of all wrong doing, and thereby, knowledge and wisdom is the goal for society to overcome their sins.

Theism
~ the doctrine or belief in the existence of a God or gods.

Theology
~ (1). The study of the nature of God and religious truth; rational inquiry into religious questions. (2). A system or school of opinions concerning God and religious questions.

Transcendentalism
~ (1). Any system of philosophy emphasizing the intuitive and spiritual above the empirical and material. (2). A literary and philosophical movement, associated with Ralph Waldo Emerson and Margaret Fuller, asserting the existence of an ideal spiritual reality that transcends the empirical and scientific and is knowable through intuition.

Universalism
~ the theological doctrine that all people will eventually be saved.

Utilitarianism
~ thesis pertaining; that which is morally correct, is whatever produces the greatest overall amount of pleasure, (hedonistic utilitarianism), or happiness, (eudaimonistic utilitarianism). Some utilitarians, (act utilitarians), claim that we should weigh the consequences of each individual action, while others (rule utilitarians) maintain that we should look at the consequences of adopting particular rules of conduct. For example, consider the common phrase, "the ends justify the means".

Valentinus
[100 - 175 AD], was a philosopher, religious leader and teacher. He wrote sermons, hymns, myths, letters, poetry and psalms. The most widely discussed of all Gnostic philosophers, he was known for his eloquence and the genius of his theological ideas, derived from a blend of Platonic, Hermetic, Jewish, and Christian elements. He was born on the Egyptian delta at Phrenobis and educated in Alexandria, where he taught early in the 2nd century. It is said that he was instructed by Theudas, a disciple of Paul.

Veritas
~ Latin word for truth.

Xenocrates
[396 - 314 BCE], Greek philosopher who defended the philosophy of Plato against the criticism of Aristotle. As head of the Academy in the fourth century, Xenocrates held forth the quasi-Pythagorean view that the Platonic Forms, including even the individual human soul, are all numbers.

Zeno of Citium
[333 - 264 BC], Founder of the Stoic school of philosophy, son of a merchant, and a student of Crates of Thebes, the most famous Cynic living at that time in Greece. Zeno preached that "man conquers the world by conquering himself", and that "tranquility can best be reached through indifference to pleasure and pain".

Zeno of Elea
[490? - 430?], pre-Socratic Greek philosopher of southern Italy and a member of the Eleatic School founded by Parmenides. Called by Aristotle the inventor of the dialectic, he is best known for his paradoxes, that are still debated even today.